BKM FKIP 2009 AT SENONI

BKM atau bakti kerja mahasiswa..

agenda tahunan bem fkip...

everything could be...

friendship... love... spirit..crying....

bkm..bentuk kecil dari pengabdian mahasiswa sebelum kelak menuju KKN...sebelum kelak benr benar terjun dalam masyarakat...

"Bersama gemercik hujan di ba'da ashar q rangkai bait demi bait tentangmu sahabat"

Bismillahirahmanirrahim...

Bersama gemercik hujan di ba'da ashar q rangkai bait demi bait tentangmu sahabat

SahabatQ..
kebersamaan Qta terjalin atas kehendak Illahi Rabbi...
Kebersamaan yg indah.. namun mapu mengurai kristal bening di kelopak mataku......

SahabatQ..
Dgn kekuatan yang senantiasa Allah berikan..takkan lelah Q menanti maaf n senyummu utk Q kembali..
juga Takkan lelah q memaafknmu n menghadiahkn senyum tulusku utkmu...

SahabatQ....
Bahagiamu bukan bergantung [adaku..
Kebahagiaanmu Dari n Hanya karena Allah Arrahman ArRahim.
Tapi..
Deritamu...bisa saja karena aq,,
Krn aq yg menyakitimu, aq yang tidak mmpu memberimu manfaat sahabat,, krn aq yg lalai mengingatknmu,,, aq yg terlupa.."sangat mungkin krn aq.."
Semoga ALLAH Mengampuni Dosa kita..dosamu juga dosaku.. Amin..
SahabatQ..
Hanya selagi q hidup.. selama q masih diberiNYA nafas..
q bisa menunggu & merindu sebuah maaf dan senyumanmu..
Hanya didunia ini,,selagi ruhku belum dipisah dgn jasadq..
q msh bisa tersenyum melihatmu bahagia..dan ikut menangis melihatmu menderita...
Hingga tiba waktunya kelak IZRAIL datang utk menjemput ruhq..membawa q menuju Sang Khalik yang Maha Memiliki...
Yang tertinggal hanya jasadku dan kenangan yang mungkin diiringin dgn rintihan niyayah..
Dan q menjalani HIdup sesudah Mati..kehidupan Yang baka..

Bila q mampu menggapai RidhoNYA.. Sang Maha Pengampun menghadiahiq surgaNYa..
Maka sungguh q juga ingin kau berada disana..aku dan kamu..kita bersama sama dlm syurgaNYa..tempat para mukmin sejati...
Tapi..bila ternyata selama hidup,,
kehilafanku melalaikan kewajiban''q kpdNYA..
keangkuhanQ menentang Agama, Rasul dan Kitab2NYA...
kezhalimanq menyakiti mahluk2nya.. termasuk menyakitimu sahabatq...
Hanya ajal yang menghentikanq dari maksiatq..
TERlemparlah aq dlm ganjaran nerakaNYA
Dan sungguh..
Q tak ingin kamu bersamaq didlam tempat yang diperuntukkan bagi iblis dan para pengikutnya itu
Sahabatq...
Tak apalah kau palingkan wajahmu dari aq.. kau menjauh di kisah qta...aq tak apa2 "Insya ALLAH..."
krn mungkin diluar sana ..bisa kau temukan : satu...sepuluh...seratus..bahkan mungkin seribu orang yang mau menjadi temanmu...
Tapi sahabatQ..
Q tak akan sanggup bila melihatmu memalingkan hati dan hidupmu dari NYA..dari Rahmat ALLAH.. Dari Sang Maha PEMBERI..DAri SAng Maha Penyayang...Sang Maha PENcinta....Sang MAha PEngampun..Pemilik Hidup dan Mati..Pemilik Semesta,,,,Sang Pemilik Segalanya...ALLAHUAKBAR

Karena bisakah kau temukan Sang Maha PEMBERI..DAri SAng Maha Penyayang...Sang Maha PENcinta....Sang MAha PEngampun..Pemilik Hidup dan Mati..Pemilik Semesta,,,,Sang Pemilik Segalanya...selain daripada ALLAH??
bisakah kau temukan hai sahabatku..??
Sahabatq...
hujan diluar memang sudah berhenti..
tapi doaq untukmu tak akan berhenti..

barokallah...!!

“Sekedar” Pengurus BEM atau “Benar benar “Pengurus BEM.??

“Sekedar” Pengurus BEM atau “Benar benar “Pengurus BEM.??

Jawabannya adalah apa dan bagaimana kontribusi,loyalitas, komitmen dan tanggung Jawab kita terhadap BEM

Hanya orang yang BENAR –BENAR CERDAS yang memahami bahwa manusia yang bermanfaat, tidak hanya memberikan manfaatnya untuk dirinya sendiri tapi juga bermanfaat untuk orang lain/umat

Lari atau menyerah dari tanggung jawab menjadi “AIB” bagi orang yang memiliki harga diri dan berakal sehat.

2 (dua) SKILL

a. Hard skill : skill yang berhubungan dengan otak

b. Soft skill :skill yang berhubungan dengan hati

 Disinilah esensi terbesar perbedaan terlihat

“SEKEDAR ANGGOTA BEM atau BENAR BENAR PENGURUS BEM”

Banyak orang yang memilih menjadi pengurus BEM tapi hanya sedikit sekali yang memilih menjadi pengurus BEM dan memberikan kontribusinya dengan hatinya.

SUPPORT “atau KOMITMEN”

1.Budi :” ayoo broo, ikut kita aksi galang dan hari ini..”

Zozo : “ehmm… saya bantu doa aja ya bro..”

2.Tarom : “kawan.. hari ini kita kumpul dikampus untuk membicarakan masalah akreditasi FKIP”

Ayhez: ‘maaf rom, saya ga’ bisa,,tp saya selalu support dari belakang”

“KETIKA MASALAH MENGUJI..DISINILAH TERLIHAT SIAPA YANG BENAR BENAR KOMITMEN DAN SAPA YANG HANYA SEKEDAR MEMBERI SUPPORT/DUKUNGAN”

“KOMITMEN DIMULAI DARI SENDIRI ,, DENGAN KESADARAN SENDIRI “BAHWA SAYA MEMANG BENAR KOMITMEN’’…..SEBAB TANPA ITU (SEKEDAR PENGARUH DARI LUAR) ITU BUKANLAH KOMITMEN TAPI HANYA JANJI JANJI MANIS BELAKA.”

*ORANG YANG BENAR BENAR KOMITMEN BUKANLAH ORANG YANG MENGATAKAN “ sabar nanti semua akan ada waktunya..ATAU saya Cuma bisa mendoakan mu selalu”

Tapi ORANG YANG BENAR BENAR KOMITMEN mengejar dan memanfaatkan waktu untuk membantu dengan tindakan (action) disertai doa yang tidak perlu dikoar-koarkan dihadapan orang lain.!!

TARGET SEBAGAI PENGURUS BEM

Target Personal ( untuk diri pribadi)

“saya harus mendapatkan ilmu dan pengalaman sebanyak banyaknya selama saya menjadi pengurus BEM”

Ex : - Ilmu/pengalaman membuat, mengurus dan menjalankan proposal,memanage team dan Pogja

-Cara memimpin rapat, menyampaikan aspirasi secara “intelek”, ilmu debat dll

-cara /pengalaman menjadi panitia yang baik dan bertanggung jawab

-Pengalaman menjadi lebih bijak ketika usul/pendapat saya diterima ataupun ditolak

-dll

“SEBELUM SAYA MENDAPATKAN ILMU TRSEBUT RUGI BESAR BILA SAYA MENINGGALKAN BEM”

TARGET UNTUK ORGANISASI (BEM)

-Insya ALLAH dengan adanya saya di BEM POGJA dan visi MISI Bem bisa dijalankan dengan baik

SI jago RETORIKA Vs Si Diam EMAS

-Bila saya Jago Retorika : seharusnya saya juga jago mewujudkan kata’’ indah saya dalam wujud (kinerja), akan memalukan bila saya hanya menjadi konseptor handal tanpa bukti kerja yang real.

- Bila saya bukan orang yang jago retorika (diam emas) ; maka saya akan membuktikan bahwa kinerja saya lebih baik daripada dia/ mereka yang jago beretorika. Saya tidak banyak bicara tapi banyak bekerja. Saya tidak jual konsep belaka tapi memberi bukti kerja yang nyata

* mana yang dipilih ; hidup dalam konsep belaka atau hidup dalam kenyataan??”*

KEJUJURAN = KATA KATA SESUAI REALITA

INTEGRITAS= REALITA SESUAI KATA KATA

*bila kita meniup bara maka apinya akan membesar… tapi bila kita meludah maka baranya akan padam.. kedua duanya keluar dari mulut kita..maka berhati hatilAH DENGAN APA YANG KITA KELUARKAN DARI MULUT kita,, kalimat yang membakar masalah atau justru memadamkan..

* Masalah besar dikecilkan, Masalah kecil di hilangkan*

“semoga Allah tidak membiarkan kita diremukkan oleh hal hal remeh..amin”

SAYA CUMA ANGGOTA BUKAN MENTERI BUKAN PRESIDEN

Leman : “ahh saya kn Cuma anggota, lha wong mentrinya saja malas..”

DAnii : “ehm..saya kan menteri, cukup memberi persetujuan saja,biar anak buah yang mengerjakan,,itung2 supaya mereka belajar..”

* SEMUA ORANG DIDUNIA INI MEMILIKI PERAN PENTING, JANGAN MELIHAT DARI APA & SIAPA..

FILM SEHEBAT TITANIC PUN MEMBUTUHKAN FIGURAN, BISAKAH DINIKMATI MENONTON FILM JIKA YANG NONGOL HANYA AKTOR /AKTRIS BINTANG UTAMANYA SAJA”

Puji ; “ahh saya tidak sanggup menjadi menteri..terlalu berat”

Marisa : “hahh,,menjadi anggota BEM susah membagi waktu”

*JIKA KITA SLALU MEMBATASI DIRI KITA, MAKA HANYA KETERBATASAN ITU YANG AKAN KITA DAPATKAN. AMBIL TANTANGAN BARU DENGAN PENUH PERHITUNGAN DAN TANGGUNG JAWAB, MAKA ILMU DAN PENGALAMAN BARU YANG AKAN KITA DAPATKAN.”*

*JIKA KITA BUKAN ORANG BESAR DAN TIDAK BISA MELAKUKAN PERBUATAN YANG BESAR.MAKA LAKUKANLAH PERBUATAN KECIL DENGAN BESAR*

PERBEDAAN ITU….

Novian :”wahh di BEM banyak yang beda pendapat dengan saya”

yanti ; ‘knp saya selalu salah dan Pendapat saya tidak pernah didengar”

melly : “aduwhh di BEM ada musuh saya, orang yang saya benci, atau orang yang membenci saya”

*BENAR /SALAH ? SLALU ADA ALASAN UNTUK PEMBENARAN (ITULAH WATAK KITA MANUSIA)

*SULIT MENCOBA MEMAHAMI ORANG LAIN JIKA KITA TIDAK MAU BERUSAHA MENEMPATKAN DIRI PADA POSISI MEREKA

*KADANG PERSEPSI ORANG LAIN TIDAK SESUAI DENGAN KEINGINAN KITA “ MAKA BEGITU PULA SEBALIKNYA”

*Benarkah kita berada dlm pemikiran yang “MEMANG BENAR’ bukan pemikiran yang “HANYA KITA ANGGAP BENAR’ ? banyak yang kita sadari,tapi tidak sedikit juga yang tidak kita sadari’

*orang akan sangat cepat menilai seserius apa komitmen kita*

Kulit Padi bisa menjadi rontok dan berubah menjadi beras karena rela bergesekan satu sama lain..

Begitu pula kita manusia diciptakan berbeda fikiran dengan ego masing masing, kita saling diuji saling bergesekan 1 sama lain untuk merontokkan ego kita masing masing’’

*MASALAH YANG PALING SERING MEMBUAT KITA STRESS ADALAH MENGENDALIKAN WAKTU, KITA LAH ANG SEHARUSNYA MENGENDALIKAN WAKTU KITA,BUKAN JUSTRU DIKENDALIKAN WAKTU..

ORANG YANG MENGGUNAKAN WAKTUNYA DENGAN BAIK SERING KALI MENGALAHKAN ORANG YANG MEMILIKI KEMAMPUAN BAIK”

*Semakin sibuk kita maka akan semakin pandai kita mengatur waktu (ket : mengutip dari kata kata mas Ikhin)

*Tidak ada kata lelah bagi seorang Mujahid ( ket : mengutip kata kata mba Vha Ashary)

* Jangan pernah menyesali kekurangan, tetaplah bersyukurlah agar menemukan kebahagian dibalik kekurangan (ket: mengutip kata kata Skak Mat)

* Jangan sampai yang sudah baik menjadi pecah (ket: mengutip kata kata Kal EL

“PERCAYALAH BAHWA ALLAH MAHA ADIL, MEMBERIKAN KITA KELEBIHAN DAN KEKURANGAN (menurut manusia) AGAR BISA SALING MELENGKAPI DAN MEMPERBAIKI DALAM KEBAIKAN”

*membangun benteng yang kokoh berarti harus rela mengikis karang agar bisa dibentuk dimensi 4, begitu pula BEM bila karang KEEGOISAN,KEAKUAN,KESENIORAN,KE SOK PINTARAN bisa dikikis,,Insya Allah terbangunlah kekokohan

*JIKA HANYA 1 ORANG YANG TIDAK SUKA DENGAN KITA, MUNGKIN ITU MASALAH PRIBADINYA..

TAPI…

JIKA HAMPIR SEMUA ORANG TIDAK SUKA DENGAN KITA,, JANGAN2 KITALAH SUMBER MASALAHNYA*

“SAYA PRESIDEN, WAPRES, SEKJEN,MENTERI”

Egi : “aduwhh lelah saya jadi menteri anak buah saya ga ada yang becus”

Fani :“ kok Cuma wapresnya yang sering datang, , presidennya malah jarang hadir

Sekjen apa..????

*PEMIMPIN MEMBERIKAN TAULADAN, APA YANG DILAKUKAN PEMIMPIN SELALU DISOROT, MAKA BERHATI HATILAH DALAM BERTINDAK, BANYAK MATA YANG MENGAWASI ANDA BAIK KEBAIKAN ATAUPUN KESALAHAN ANDA*

*PEMIMPIN YANG BAIK MENGHARGAI HAK- HAK BAWAHANNYA DAN MENYADARI BAHWA SEBUAH KEBERHASILAN BESAR SERING KALI DIDAPAT DARI IDE IDE ORANG KECIL*

DIA SENIOR, SAYA JUNIOR

Indra : “ehmm.. coba gimana pendapat mba nova,,kan sudah 2 kali jadi pengurus BEM?”

Dani: “ehm..coba sandi gimana pendapatnya..ayo suara baru..suara baru..”

*YANG TERPENTING BUKANLAH SUDAH BERAPA LAMA ANDA DI BEM..TAPI.. APA YANG SUDAH KITA LAKUKAN SELAMA DIBEM*

*MATAHARI DAN BULAN ADALAH SAMA SAMA PENERANG UNTUK BUMI.. TAPI MANUSIALAH YANG BISA MEMBEDAKAN MANA YANG LEBIH BESAR SINAR*

*Kualitas atau Kuantitas?? Hanya bisa dijawab oleh orang yang memiliki kuantitas akal yang berkualitas*

KALAH OLEH MASALAH “LOSER”

• Alkisah Seekor keledai milik petani tua terperosok kedalam sumur kering yang dalam.. si petani tua sudah kehabisan akal untuk menolong keledainya. Akhirnya sipetani berfikir “sumur ini sudah kering, dan keledai ini juga sudah tua..ya sudah sebaiknya ditimbun saja “ Lalu sipetani mulai menyekop tanah untuk menimbun sumur sekaligus mengubur keledainya,, ternyata keledai itu mengoncangkan setiap tanah yang ditimpakan ketubuhnya hingga semakin meninggi dan akhirnya keledai itu bisa meloncat dan terbebas dari sumur.

*BEGITU PULA HENDAKNYA KITA MANUSIA,,GONCANGKANLAH SETIAP TANAH DAN KOTORAN MASALAH AGAR KELUAR DARI SUMUR MASALAH KITA, KARENA SETIAP MASALAH ADALAH PIJAKAN UNTUK MELANGKAH, BILA KITA HANYA BERDIAM DAN MERATAP, MASALH ITU SEMAKIN MENINGGI DAN MENGUBUR KITA DALAM KEMATIAN..!!

*SESUNGGUHNYA DALAM KESULITAN TERDAPAT KEMUDAHAN..INSYA ALLAH

CARA KITA ”MELIHAT” MASALAH MERUPAKAN MASALAH ITU SENDIRI PIL PAHIT ATAU JUSTRU PELAJARAN YANG AKAN MENGUBAH HIDUP MENJADI LEBIH MANIS.??

*KITA MEMANG BEBAS UNTUK MEMILIH TINDAKAN Tapi..KITA TIDAK BISA BEBAS UNTUK MEMILIH KONSEKWENSI DARI TINDAKAN ITU.” SEPERTI MENGANGKAT UJUNG TONGKAT MAKA OTOMATIS PULA KITA MENGANGKAT UJUNG TONGKAT YANG LAIN”*

DI BEM CUMA BUANG WAKTU..MENDING KERJA.!!

Udin : “ga’ ada gunanya ikut BEM, bikin capek mending kerja aja ngumpul duit..”

Upin : “ mau maunya jadi anggota BEM sok sibuk, mank ada gajinya..??”

*Bila suatu pekerjaan dianggap ibadah, Insya Allah ganjaran atau upah bukan fikiran utama*

= ketika semuanya diukur dengan materi (uang) apakah kita shalat, puasa, dll untuk diberi uang.?? Maka minta tolonglah pada uangmu bila kelak nafasmu diujung sekaratul maut

= Pernahkah kamu mendengar ilmu bisa jatuh dihantam krisis moneter??

Justru nilai jual ilmu semakin mahal ketika krisis menghantam..

“ DI BEM adalah langkah awal seorang mahasiswa yang tidak hanya mengejar prestasi akademik, tetapi belajar bermanfaat untuk umat, dan berguna untuk bangsa..”

MEMANDANG SEBUAH MASALAH DAN ORANG YANG BERSALAH

“Orang yang baik bukanlah orang yang tidak pernah melalukan kesalah, tapi orang yang baik ialah orang yang mengakui kesalahan dan memperbaikinya..”

*Memaafkan memang berat, tapi perbuatan mulia, dan hanya bisa dilakukan oleh orang orang yang berjiwa mulia

*Adakah pedang yang tidak bisa tumpul..?

Adakah orang alim yang tidak pernah bersalah..?

“NOBODY PERFECT”

Kesempurnaan Hanya Milik Allah

Kita manusia hanya berusaha untuk melakukan sesuatu agar dapat hasil “hampir” sempurna

Hilangkan suudzon (buruk sangka) bahwa seorang yang bersalah tidak bisa berubah menjadi baik atau hanya berusaha berubah menjadi baik agar disebut baik, Karena Allah memberikan Rahmat dan petunjuknya kepada siapa yang dikehendakiNYA..Dan Allah mengetahui apa yang tersembunyi,,!!

Kadang dianggap CERDAS membuat kita menjadi BODOH untuk mengendalikan KECERDASAN kita

TERHADAP KESALAHAN :FAHAMI , AKUI, PERBAIKI

TETAP INGAT PRIORITAS

*Jangan korbankan KULIAH….!!*

Bila menjadi Pengurus BEM dijadikan dalih untuk sering membolos dari jam perkuliahan maka 3 kesalahan telah kita lakukan ;

1. Rugi ilmu, Rugi nilai, Rugi sudah bayar mahal SKS

2. Lupa keringat orang tua yang sudah membiayai kuliah kita

3. BEM pun dicap tempat kumpulnya orang2 yang mengorbankan kuliah

*SEKUNDER atau PRIMER… PENTING atau GENTING……PRIORITAS atau TOTALITAS…??

Tempatkanlah semua sesuai porsinya….!!!

Sangat tidak “fair” bila prioritas utama (kuliah) justru terbengkalai”*

“apa yang tidak kita dapatkan diruang kuliah, bisa kita dapatkan di BEM..dan Apa yang tidak kita dapatkan di BEM bisa kita dapatkan diruang kuliah… keduanya adalah tempat kita belajar…”

Point plus dan salut untuk mahasiswa yang dapat 2 ; KULIAH dan MENJADI PENGURUS BEM

“MASIH DAN SELALU ADA MASALAH”

*Kepompong harus rela melewati proses sebagai ulat yang menjijikkan sebelum bisa menjadi Kupu kupu yang indah

*Mangga harus rela dikupas dan diiris untuk bisa dirasa manis

*Besi harus rela dibakar dan ditempa agar bisa menjadi pedang yang tajam dan kuat

BEGITU PULA MANUSIA, SESUNGGAUHNYA MASALAH, UJIAN,DERITA, SEMUANYA UNTUK MENJADIKAN HIDUP KITA LEBIH INDAH, MANIS DAN KUAT..

Lihat dari sudut pandang yang berbeda, Ujian bisa menjadi peluang, Cobaan bisa menjadi Jemabatan, Masalah pun menjadi pelajaran dan semuanya akan menjadikan kita lebih baik bila kita mau bersyukur..

*Hidup terasa Hampa, bila kita yang menghampakannya, mengosongkannya dari rutinitas kebajikan,terjebak dengan meratapi kesalahn dan masalah, terperangkap dalam keluh kesah Sehingga lupa bahwa masih ada Keluarga, Sahabat, dan KarIR yang menanti senyum kita ”

SIKAP PEMENANG SEJATI

1. SELALU SEMANGAT DALAM “CUACA HATI” APAPUN

2.TETAP ADIL SAAT DISETUJUI, DITOLAK,DISUKAI/ DIBENCI

3.MEMBERI MAAF UNTUK KESALAHAN ORANG LAIN “MENGAGUNGKAN SIFAT ALLAH YANG MAHA PEMAAF” & MEMBANTU MEMPERBAIKINYA

4.MEMBERI MAAF WALAU TIDAK DIMAAFKAN/DIBALAS DENGAN KEBENCIAN

5.MENGHAPUS SUUDZON(BURUK SANGKA) DAN POSITIVE THINGKING

“ALLAH MAHA MENGETAHUI APA YANG NAMPAK DAN APA YANG TERSEMBUNYI”

6.SENANG, SANTAI, dan BERFIKIR bukan BERFIKIR UNTUK SENANG DAN SANTAI..!!

7.IKHTIAR YANG TAK MENGENAL PUTUS ASA, DISERTAI DOA KEMUDIAN TAWAKKAL KEPADA ALLAH HAKIM YANG MAHA ADIL.

8. SELALU BERSYUKUR

“ Ayhez Syamsuri Wahyu”

The Phrase in English Form and Function in the English Phrase Words are the constituent elements of the next rank, phrases. At the phrase rank,

The Phrase in English
Form and Function in the English Phrase

Words are the constituent elements of the next rank, phrases. At the phrase rank, we discover that it is possible to analyze each structure in more than one way. To study this phenomenon more closely, we will look at phrase structure in English. English is a language with five classes of phrases, noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases.

The Noun Phrase

Like all phrases, the constituents of the English noun phrase can be analyzed into both functional constituents and formal constituents. From a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four major components, occurring in a fixed order:

• the determinative, that constituent which determines the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context;

• premodification, which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners;

• the head, around which the other constituents cluster; and

• postmodification, those which comprise all the modifying constituents placed after the head.

In the diagram below, notice that each functional component of a noun phrase (NP) can be further subclassified as we trace the diagram from left to right until we find that we have form classes (of the kind we discussed above) filling each constituent category.

Depending on the context of situation, we choose determiners and modifiers according to our needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP. Sometimes we need several determiners and modifiers to clarify the referent (all my books in that box); sometimes we need none at all (Liz).

That diagram is one way to represent the dual nature of a phrase. Each phrase, remember, is a merger of both form and function, and, as complex as it looks, the diagram illustrates only some of the complexities of the noun phrase in English. (For a more thorough treatment, see Halliday 1994 and Quirk et al. 1985.) Another way to illustrate some of the possible arrangements of form and function in the noun phrase is presented in the table below.

Some Examples of the Noun Phrase in English

FUNCTION Determiner Premodifier Head Postmodifier

(a) lions

E (b) the young

X (c) the information age

A (d) each of the children

M (e) some badly needed time with the family

P (f) this conclusion to the story

L (g) all my children

E (h) several new mystery books which we recently enjoyed

S (i) such a marvelous data bank filled with information

(j) a better person than I

FORMS Pronoun Participle Noun Prepositional Phrase

Article Noun Adjective Relative Clause

Quantifier Adjective Phrase Pronoun Nonfinite Clause

Complementation

Notice that several forms classes can be "reused." For example, in the noun phrase it is possible to use quantifiers to function as pre-determiners or as post-determiners. This kind of "recycling" is known as recursion. Notice also that phrases and even whole clauses can be "recycled" into the noun phrase. This process of placing a phrase of clause within another phrase of clause is called embedding. It is through the processes of recursion and embedding that we are able to take a finite number of forms (words and phrases) and construct an infinite number of expressions. Furthermore, embedding also allows us to construct an infinitely long structure, in theory anyway.

For example, the nursery rhyme "The House That Jack Built" plays on the process of embedding in English noun phrases. The nursery rhyme is one sentence that continuously grows by embedding more and more relative clauses as postmodifiers in the noun phrase that ends the sentence:

This is the house that Jack built.

This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt hat lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the dog that chased the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the boy who loves the dog that chased the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

And so on. In theory, we could go on forever because language relies so heavily on embedding.

The Verb Phrase

The verb phrase (VP) in English has a noticeably different structure, since the information it carries about mood, tense, modality, aspect, and voice is quite different from the information carried by a noun phrase. The verb phrase has two functional parts,

• the auxiliary, a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense, modality, and voice; and

• the main verb, a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and, usually, an inflection.

The mood system in English is divided into four subcategories.

The indicative mood 'indicates;' that is, it conveys to the listener/reader that the speaker/writer is making a statement, referring to the real world in an honest, direct, relevant way. The majority of our expressions are indicative in mood. Speakers signal the indicative mood by using word order: when the auxiliaries take their "usual" position following the 'subject,' we interpret the clause as being in the indicative mood.

Philosophers of language, like H. P. Grice, have done some of the most interesting linguistics of recent years, explicating the meanings of the indicative mood in English by examining how people use language in conversation. After studying a series of conversations in different contexts, he developed the following generalizations or "rules of conversation" that help explain much about how we interpret our language in the indicative mood. Grice (1975) pointed out the participants in a conversation expect each other to be cooperative, to say something true and to the point, and not to be withholding any relevant information.

Specifically, Grice's maxims, or "rules," are the following:

MAXIM OF QUANTITY

a. Make your contribution as informative as is required.

b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

MAXIM OF QUALITY

c. Do not say what you believe to be false.

d. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

MAXIM OF RELATION

e. Be relevant.

MAXIM OF MANNER

f. Avoid obscurity of expression.

g. Avoid ambiguity.

h. Be brief.

i. Be orderly.

Look at the conversation between A and B below. The maxims of quantity and relation are at work in B's response, like principles guiding our indicative interpretation of the fragment.

A: When will you stop by?

B: Sometime after dinner.

What maxims are at work in the following conversations between C and D?

C: I'm hungry.

D: I've got five dollars.

The reply D makes is only sensible if we assume that D is following the maxim of relation (that D is being relevant to C's statement of hunger) and the maxim of manner (that D being brief).

The interrogative mood signals the speakers' desire for information, that they are asking a question, that they are 'interrogating' the listeners. The interrogative is marked by starting a clause with an auxiliary verb or an interrogative pronoun.

(1) Can Liz do that?

(2) What will Liz do?

The imperative mood express the speakers' sense of a command, request, or exhortation - an imperative. Speakers signal the imperative mood by using a base form of the verb in clause-initial position.

(3) Do that!

(4) Be here by 8:00 pm.

The subjunctive mood express the speakers' sense of the unlikely, a wish, a prayer, a hope. The subjunctive describes the state of affairs as speakers wish or hope them to be. It describes hypothetical situations, "some other world," the irreal. Speakers signal the subjunctive by beginning subordinate clauses with an auxiliary or by using subordinators that overtly mark hypothetical conditions.

(5) Had I known you were coming, I'd have baked a cake.

(6) If I were a millionaire, I'd endow an award in your honor.

The subjunctive is also marked in the verb phrase by the use of subject-verb concord, as in (6), where the singular subject I is matched with the plural verb were. Base forms of verbs can also signal the subjunctive.

(7) I suggest that Ms. Jones reconsider her decision.

(8) The administration insists that no one be exempted from the placement exams.

Finally, the base form is also used in several older, formulaic subjunctive expressions that have survived in the modern language.

(9) God save the King.

(10) Heaven forbid it should snow again.

Tense systems mark time. Tense is an inflection on the verb that indicates the time reference of the expression. In English, tense is marked on the first verb of the verb phrase. All verbs marked for tense are called 'finite' verbs, while verb forms that do not carry a tense inflection (such as participles) are called 'nonfinite' verbs.

English has two tenses, really. On most English verbs, the -s inflection marks the present tense, and the -ed inflection marks the past tense. Verbs using both the -s and -ed forms are known as 'regular' verbs in that those verbs employ the most common, most 'productive' inflection to mark time, as in helps/helped, hopes/hoped, loves/loved. 'Irregular verbs,' on the other hand, fall into seven subcategories, employing a number of inflections (such as -en for the participle inflection as in written, taken, stolen) or in some classes employing no participle inflections at all (such as put or cut as in Liz cuts the cake/Liz cut the cake/Liz has cut the cake).

It is really better to refer to the present tense in English as the 'nonpast,' since English uses the present tense to refer to many different time frames. Consider the sentences below, for example, where all the verbs are marked for the present tense, but the time reference varies considerably from example to example:

(11) Emily is tired today.

(12) Emily is leaving soon.

(13) Emily is clever.

Sentence (11) indeed does refer to the present time frame, but sentence (12) seems to refer to the near future, although it is marked for "present" tense. Sentence (13) is altogether different: its time frame is expansive, referring to the past, present, and future simultaneously.

What people commonly call the 'future' in English is really part of the modality system of the language. English speakers use modal auxiliary verbs (like will) or phrasal verbs (like is going to - often phonologically reduced to gonna) to refer to the future.

The modality system expresses the speakers' sense of obligation, volition, probability, permission, and ability. Modality is signaled by the use of a modal auxiliary verb and the use of a base verb, modal + base.

(14) Liz {must/should} go. ("obligation")

(15) Liz will stop that immediately! ("volition")

(16) Liz {may/might} go. ("probability")

(17) Liz {can/may} go. ("permission")

(18) Liz {can/could} do it ("ability")

The modal will also expresses a 'future' sense.

(19) Liz will do it tomorrow. ("future")

The modality system also includes a class of auxiliary verbs called semi-auxiliaries (or semi-modals or quasi-modals). These idiomatic verbs and phrasal verbs express modal (and sometimes aspectual) meaning. They often (but not always) take the form of BE+PARTICIPLE+to. These semi-auxiliaries resemble auxiliaries in that they have some equivalence of meaning. Syntactically, the semi-auxiliaries are a mixed group. The semi-auxiliaries starting with be do not need do-support in negation or question formation, but most of the others do employ do-support for those syntactic processes. (See the discussion of do-support below.)

Aspect signals either the completion or the continuation of the process indicated by the verb in English. The perfect aspect expresses the speakers' sense of completion, the speakers' sense that the process expressed by the verb has been "perfected," to use the older sense of the word. The perfect aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary have and the -ed participle, have + V-ed. (Remember that some verbs are irregular, with irregular participle forms.)

(20) Liz has gone already.

The progressive aspect expresses the speakers' sense that the process expressed by the verb continues, covers a period of time, and is in some way relevant to the present moment. The progressive aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary be and the -ing participle, be + V-ing.

(21) Liz is doing the best work ever.

Voice systems allows speakers to view the action of the sentence in different ways without changing the facts involved. English has two voices, active and passive. In the examples below, it is possible to see the event from the perspective of the 'agent' (the conscious "doer" of the action - that is active voice), as in (22), or from the perspective of the 'goal' (the "receiver" of the action - that is passive voice), as in (23).

(22) Liz encourages Emily. (active)

(23) Emily is encouraged by Liz. (passive)

The passive voice is signaled by the use of a form of be and the -ed participle, be + V-ed.

Lastly, English also employs the verb do to function as a supporting auxiliary in verb phrases that require an auxiliary for certain grammatical processes but which lack some other auxiliary already discussed. Consider (24) for example where it would be impossible to signal the interrogative mood without the support of the do auxiliary, as in (25).

(24) Emily sleeps well at night.

(25) Does Emily sleep well at night?

To signal the interrogative mood, remember, the auxiliary verb occurs in clause-initial position. However, if the clause has not auxiliary verb, as (24) does not, then do-support provides the necessary auxiliary, as in (25). Notice too that do has all the hallmarks of an auxiliary: not only does it occur in clause-initial position as other auxiliaries do in the interrogative mood, but it also is marked for tense like all first verbs in the finite English verb phrase.

Another way to illustrate some of the relationships between form and function in the verb phrase is presented in the table below.

Some Examples of the Verb Phrase in English

FUNCTION Auxiliaries Main Verb

(a) do believe

E (b) can go

X (c) may have gone

A (d) is going

M (e) has been waiting

P (f) might have been waiting

L (g) were hired

E (h) are being hired

S (i) should be trying

(j) might have been being interviewed

FORM Modal Perfect Progressive Passive Auxiliary Support Main Verb

The Adjective Phrase

The adjective phrase in English has four functional constituents,

• premodification, those modifying, describing, or qualifying constituents which precede the head;

• the head, which is an adjective or participle serving as the focus of the phrase;

• postmodification, that modifying constituent which follows the head; and

• complementation, (the major subcategory of postmodification here) that constituent which follows any postmodification and completes the specification of a meaning implied by the head.

To see some examples of adjective phrases, examine the table below.

Some Examples of the Adjective Phrase in English

FUNCTION Premodifier Head Postmodifier

(a) happy

E (b) excited indeed

X (c) partly cloudy

A (d) young in spirit

M (e) very energetic for his age

P (f) so extremely sweet

L (g) too good to be true

E (h) hot enough for me

S (i) quite worried about the results of the test

(j) unusually sunny for this time of year

FORM Adverb

Adverb Adjective Prepositional Phrase

Adverb Phrase Infinitive Clause

Notice that the order of constituents in the adjective phrase, like all other phrase structures in English, is relatively fixed, helping us determine the constituent elements.

The Adverb Phrase

The adverb phrase in English is nearly identical to the adjective phrase, with only the expected changes in form. In the adverb phrase, an adverb functions as head.

To see some examples of adverb phrases, examine the table.

Some Examples of the Adverb Phrase in English

FUNCTION Premodifier Head Postmodifier

(a) quietly

E (b) quite honestly

X (c) very hard indeed

A (d) however

M (e) really early

P (f) so very well indeed

L (g) too quickly to see well

E (h) likely enough for us

S (i) formerly of Cincinnati

(j) more easily than ever

FORM Adverb

Adverb Adverb Prepositional Phrase

Adverb Phrase Infinitive Clause

The Prepositional Phrase

The last structure for us to study at the phrase rank is the prepositional phrase. This phrase is a 'nonheaded' construction in English since no one constituent functions as the center of the phrase, the center on which the other elements depend. Instead, the structure is divided into two functional components - the preposition followed by its complement. In general, a prepositional phrase expresses a relationship between the complement of the preposition and some other constituent of the sentence. Diagrammatically, the structure of the prepositional phrase looks like this:

The table below illustrates some of the possible structures found in the English prepositional phrase.

Some Examples of the Prepositional Phrase in English

FUNCTION Preposition Complement

(a) for now

E (b) with her

X (c) in time

A (d) next to the table

M (e) into the thick of things

P (f) by the time that you read this

L (g) before slipping off to sleep

E (h) after running more than 500 miles in one week

S (i) to whomever it may concern

(j) from what I can see

FORM Preposition Adverb

Pronoun

Noun

Noun Phrase

-ing Clause

Relative Clause

________________________________________

REFERENCES

Halliday, Michael A. K.

1994 Introduction to Functional Grammar 2nd edition, London: Edward Arnold.

Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svartvik.

1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman.

© 1995, 2010 Daniel Kies. All rights reserved.

Document URL: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/phrase.htm

Last revision: 05/21/2010 18:40:53

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study about syntax

Structural Analysis of English Syntax

 Definitions

 Inflectional Paradigms

 Derivational Paradigms

 Intonation Patterns

 Position or Word Order

 Form Class Words

Nouns –Class I, Pronouns, Verbs –Class II, Adjectives –Class III, Adverbs –Class IV

 Function Words (determiners, conjunctions, others)

 Syntactic Combinations, Phrase Analysis, Immediate Constituent Analysis, and Sentence Formulas

What is syntax?

 The forms that English words may be given and the sequences in which they are arranged with other words to express larger, more complex meanings make up the syntactic pattern or system of English.

 The syntax of English –the third level of grammar and the third level of analysis –deals with the more complex combinations of linguistic forms. Identification of a word class is not, then, a matter of “What do these words mean?” but “How do they fit into a pattern?” “What forms will they take?” and “How do they behave in combination with other forms?” (1999, Herndon)

 The way in which words are put together to form constructions (American Heritage Dictionary)

Paradigms

The devices used by structuralists for establishing word classes in English include consideration of ways in which certain types of words can be grouped into sets, called paradigms, on the basis of the inflectional and derivational affixes that they will take.

1. Inflectional paradigms

They are sets of forms. Each set is made up of a base form (singular), plus whatever morphemic changes –either the addition of suffixes or sound changes or both –may be used to adapt the base form to certain functions without changing the lexical meaning.

(1999, Herndon)

For example, the inflectional paradigm for the class form (NOUNS) is made up as follows.

Base

(singular) Base Form +

plural Base Form +

possessive Base Form +

Possessive plural

teacher teachers teacher’s

teacher’s desk teachers’

teachers’ rights

student students student’s students’

Nouns – inflectional paradigms

2. Derivational paradigms

Derivational paradigms are made up of sets of endings that may be attached to bases that may shift their lexical meaning or part of speech or both. Some examples of noun-marking derivational suffixes are –hood, -ship, -ness, and –ment. Words having these endings are recognized, even in isolation, as nouns. (1999, Herndon)

Other aspects of syntax

 Intonation Patterns –contrasts made by the differences of stress, pitch, and juncture often identify a form as belonging to one word class or another. For example the difference between the noun contract and the verb contract, is determined by differences in intonation pattern.

(1999, Herndon)

 Position or Word Order – word classes are usually identifiable on the basis of where they appear in a given sentence. Many words are not recognizable as a single part of speech when they are met in isolation. According to Herndon, we do not need the structuralists to prove this, but rather to rely on Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, which lists the word round as adjective, noun, transitive verb, preposition, and adverb. In order to isolate the definition that you seek, you must have the word in a context.

Function Words

 Some words in English may not make use of the structural paradigms. They have no inflectional or derivational endings.

 They perform a function in the system –outside of the grammatical relationships they signify, they have little or no meaning.

 The categories of function words are often called closed classes because new forms are rarely, if ever, added to them.

 Function words represent only a few hundred of the more than half a million words in English. (1999, Herndon)

Form Class Words

1. Nouns –Class I Words

1. Inflectional paradigm –generally speaking, nouns are forms that will accept inflections. (slide # 5)

2. Derivational paradigms –many forms may be recognized as nouns on the basis of various noun-marking derivational suffixes added either to bound bases or to other words –often words belonging to other classes. There are literally dozens of these endings. For example, -er, -or, and –ment adapt verbs to use as nouns;

Examples: verbs + derivational suffix = noun

work + er = worker

play + er = player

stimulate + or = stimulator

govern + ment = government

3. Intonation Pattern – differences of stress may distinguish nouns from verbs (slide # 7). Heavier stress on the first syllable almost always signals a noun; heavier stress on the second signals a verb. noun -súspect / verb -suspéct

4. Position or Word Order

Nouns fill certain characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech. The most obvious is that just before the verb.

Examples: The _____ is here. These _____ are beautiful!

5. Function Words –In English, noun determiners immediately precede nouns or precede them with certain words in between. Some noun determiners never appear except when followed by a noun and invariably signal its coming. These are the articles the, a, and an and the possessive pronouns my, your, our, and their. Other pronouns are quite frequently used as determiners, but have other functions as well. These are the demonstratives this, that, these, and those and the other possessive pronouns, his, her, and its.

Pronouns

 When considered a separate class, pronouns are Class II words, but most school texts consider them a subcategory of nouns.

 In contrast to nouns, pronouns constitute a closed class –no new pronouns have been added to English for hundreds of years. If anything, the class has become smaller instead, as few speakers now make use of the forms thee, thou, thy, and thine.

 Personal pronouns fall into an inflectional paradigm that is similar to, but not exactly like, that for nouns. Forms show both number and the possessive case, but they also show gender and the nominative and objective cases.

Example: he / his / him (see enclosures)

 Pronouns, in most cases are identifiable by the ability of each to substitute for a type of noun or noun phrase.

(1999, Herndon)

3. Verbs Class II Words

a. Inflectional Paradigm –English verbs commonly have five forms , the base form and four inflected forms. These inflections are the present 3rd person singular, the past, the present participle, and the past participle form. (see example below)

• The present 3rd singular is similar in many ways to the noun inflections

• The past tense, or preterit, is commonly formed with the –ed ending, but there are several irregular allomorphs.

• The present participle is formed by an –ing suffix.

• The past participle makes use of –ed and –en endings or internal vowel changes. In a class by itself in many ways is the verb be, which has eight inflected forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been)

base 3rd sing. past present part. past part.

eat eats ate eating eaten

3. Verbs –cont.

b. Derivational Paradigm

Some verbs are marked by suffixes such as the –ate ending added to bound bases and nouns, the –ize added to bound bases, nouns, and adjectives, and the –fy added to bound bases, nouns, and adjectives, and the prefix –en added to nouns and some other verbs.

Examples: summarize, beautify, locate, etc.

c. Intonation Pattern See contrasts with nouns marked by intonation

d. Position or Word Order

Some positions mark verbs. Verbs commonly occupy the first position in requests, a position between two nouns or pronouns, or between noun and adjective or adverb. Here’s a simple set of test frames for verbs.

1. The child may___ something.

2. The children ___ friendly.

3. ___ you ____ me that?

e. Function Words – function words that work with verbs are the various forms of have and be and the modals can, may, should, will, and others. (1999, Herndon)

4. Adjectives – Class III Words

a. Inflectional Paradigms

True adjectives commonly show comparative and superlative degrees by adding –er and –est inflections. Derived adjectives make use of the function words more and most for this purpose.

b. Derivational Paradigms

True adjectives fit into derivational patterns with nouns formed by adding the suffix –ness to true adjectives and adverbs formed by adding the suffix –ly to the same adjectives. (1999, Herndon)

happy-happiness-happily

b. (Cont.) Adjectives are derived from other words by adding such endings as –y, ic, and –ous to nouns and bound bases; -ful and –less to nouns; -able,-ent, and –ive to verbs and bound bases.

1. greed greedy

2. class classic

3. danger dangerous

4. need needful

5. home homeless

6. manage manageable

7. differ different

8. persuade persuasive

4. Adverbs – Class IV Words

Many adverbs share several structural distinctions with adjectives

a. Inflectional Paradigm

In a few cases adverbs admit the comparative and superlative degree endings (er, est), usually they use more and most. Some adverbs have a base form that also serves as an adjective (fast, hard). In this case the class will depend upon other structural devices. (1999, Herndon)

b. Derivational Paradigm –the most common adverb-marking suffix is the –ly added to adjectives (common + ly), (soft+ ly), (bare + ly). .

There are other combinations.

c. Intonation Patterns

The intonation patterns of larger structures often show adverbs patterning closely with verbs, in contrast to adjectives which usually pattern with nouns.

d. Word Order

Most adverbs in English are extremely mobile. Various types may fill any of several positions or positional combinations, but almost all can fill the position following a noun-verb-complement sequence like the following.

The boy ate his cookies _____.

(1999, Herndon)

Function Words

 Determiners – The workings of the determiner class of function words is described in some detail under the form class with which they appear, the nouns or class I words. The most commonly used members are the, a, an, and some.

 Auxiliary Verbs – Forms of the auxiliaries have and be work with various inflected forms of verbs. Modals are usually considered a subcategory because their operation is somewhat different from that of have and be. Other auxiliaries are forms of get and do.

 Qualifiers – They work with both adjectives and adverbs. Some of the most frequently used are more, most, very, quite, rather, and somewhat.

 Prepositions – They introduce modifying or qualifying phrases set apart by intonation pattern and the presence of the preposition form. They indicate the relation of words with other words. (eg. location, direction, time, etc.)

 Conjunctions – They always work as coordinators of linguistics forms or syntactic units having equal value. The two most frequently used are and and but.

 Subordinators – they connect dependent clauses and include words such as because, after, although, unless, and so on, as well as the relative pronouns who, whose, which, and that.

 Interrogatives – they operate in the formation of questions and include words such as when, where, why, how and so on, as well as the interrogative pronouns who, which, and what

Syntactic Combinations

 When smaller structures enter into combinations, some consideration must be given to the relationship holding between them within the combination. For example, “Birds fly” consists of structures commonly called noun and verb.

 The combination is a larger structure called a sentence. Within the sentence both words have a structure and a function.

 Analysis of any larger structure involves sorting its parts into types of smaller structures and identifying the functions performed in the combination.

 Structural grammarians vary somewhat in the methods used to analyze complex grammatical structures in English. (1999, Herndon)

 This chapter discusses three of the principal methodologies used by grammarians. (1999, Herndon)

a. phrase analysis b. immediate constituent analysis c. sentence formulas

Phrase Analysis

 One of these methods begins with consideration of word “clusters that are set apart on the basis of the intonation pattern that they show. A group of words appearing between well-defined junctures is described as a phrase or cluster.

 The principal word in each phrase is called the head word.

 In general, phrases function as units in larger structures, and they fall into groups based on the type of function the unit performs.

 Noun phrases, verb phrases, and various types of modifying or qualifying phrases –adjectival, adverbial, prepositional, and so on –may be defined.

 Analysis may then be made of relationships holding between the various types when they appear in various combinations. Finally, clause and sentence types may be defined. (1999, Herndon)

Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC)

 The second method and perhaps the most widely used means of dealing with English syntax is the IC.

 Sentences are divided into their principal parts or immediate constituents.

 Each of these is then divided and subdivided until the ultimate constituents of the sentence are reached.

1. The boys / shyly touched the puppy.

shyly touched / the puppy.

The / boys / shyly / touched / the / puppy.

Small puppies / are fat and frisky.

are / fat and frisky.

Small / puppies / are/ fat / and/ frisky.

 Further cuts might even divide the plural morphemes from boy and puppy, the inflectional –ed from touch and the ly from shy.

ICs –structures and functions

 In ICs the relationship is analyzed and identified after each cut is made. The first cut yields structures that function as subject and predicate.

The boys shyly touched the puppy.

Structures: (NP) noun phrase (VP) verb phrase

Functions: Subject Predicate

 The second cut yields structures that function as verbal element and complement (or object) within the predicate

The boys shyly touched the puppy.

Structures: VP NP

Functions: Verbal Element Complement (Object)

ICs – final cut

The boys shyly touched the puppy.

S. Det. Noun Adverb Verb Det. Noun

F. Mod. Head Modifier Head Mod. Head

 Among other things, this type of analysis gives rise to the practice of referring to noun-headed and verb-headed structures when speaking of phrases. (1999, Herndon)

Sentence Formulas

 The third method is one that begins with a consideration of basic sentence patterns and proceeds to analyze the relationships between the different parts of the patterns

 Each of the parts of a very simple sentence can be expanded in various ways so that more complex sentence patterns –and more complex layers of relationships –are produced

 Sentence patterns of the simplest noun-verb-noun, noun-verb-adjective types are considered first.

 The sentence parts are designated by the numbers and letters assigned to their form class or function word groups. (1999, Herndon)

 A short sample list might include these groups:

Form Class Words

1. Noun or pronoun

2. Verb

3. Adjective

4. Adverb

Function Words

D. Determiner

A. Auxiliary

Q. Qualifier

P. Preposition

SUMMARY

 Structural analysis of English syntax divides the parts of speech into form class words and function words. Categories of form class words are identified on the basis of the following criteria:

1. inflectional paradigm

2. derivational paradigm

3. intonation pattern

4. word order

5. function words that work with them

 Several methods of phrase and sentence analysis have been used by structuralists. The most influential one is called immediate constituent (IC) analysis.

reffences

(1999, Herndon)

STUDY ABOUT PRONOUNS

STUDY ABOUT PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.
Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).
KINDS OF PRONOUNS


A. Personal Pronouns:


SINGULAR PLURAL
subjective objective possessive subjective objective possessive
1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours
2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours
3rd person he
she
it him
her
it his
her, hers
its they
them their, theirs






Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:


1. three persons (points of view)
1st person - the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours)
2nd person - the one(s) spoken to (you your yours)
3rd person - the one(s) spoken about (he him his she her hers it its they their theirs)
Examples


2. three genders
feminine (she her hers)
masculine (he him his)
neuter (it its they them their theirs)
Examples




3. two numbers
singular (I me my mine you your yours he him his she her hers it its)
plural (we us our ours you your yours they them their theirs)
Examples




4. three cases
subjective (I you he she it we they)
possessive (my mine your yours his her hers our ours their theirs)
objective (me you him her it us them)
Examples - subjective case




Examples - possessive case




Examples - objective case




NOTE: Because of pronoun case, the pronoun's form changes with its function in the sentence. Follow this link to pronoun case for more information.


. Demonstrative Pronouns:






Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners.




Example:


Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer)


Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as qualifiers:




Example:


She wanted that much money? (that describes the adjective much)




C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns




These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the sentence.


Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns.


Examples:


I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the pronoun I.)


I’ll do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.)




Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used:


theirselves theirself hisself ourself








D. Indefinite Pronouns:


Singular:


one someone anyone no one everyone
each somebody anybody nobody everybody
(n)either something anything nothing everything




Examples:


Somebody is coming to dinner.
Neither of us believes a word Harry says.
Plural:


Examples:


Both are expected at the airport at the same time.
Several have suggested canceling the meeting.
Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:


Examples:


Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.
Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.
Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
Examples:


The accident is nobody’s fault.
How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.
one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most
Note the differences:


Each person has a chance.


(Each is a determiner describing person.)




Each has a chance.


(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)




Both lawyers pled their cases well.


(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)




Both were in the room.


(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
E. Interrogative Pronouns:


Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a “yes” or “no” answer.
Examples:


What do you want?


Who is there?
F. Relative Pronouns:


Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.






Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.